Highlights
- •Primary care physicians are challenged with the growing complexity of treatment options.
- •This position statement recommends a simple, evidence-based cardiovascular risk stratification rubric.
- •Clinicians need to consider early combination options for patients with various common comorbidities.
- •A comprehensive summary of prescribing tips and side effects by drug class is given.
Abstract
Keywords
Purchase one-time access:
Academic & Personal: 24 hour online accessCorporate R&D Professionals: 24 hour online accessOne-time access price info
- For academic or personal research use, select 'Academic and Personal'
- For corporate R&D use, select 'Corporate R&D Professionals'
Subscribe:
Subscribe to Primary Care DiabetesReferences
- Management of hyperglycemia in type 2 diabetes: a patient-centered approach: position statement of the American Diabetes Association (ADA) and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD).Diabetes Care. 2012; 35: 1364-1379https://doi.org/10.2337/dc12-0413
- Improving primary care for patients with chronic illness: the chronic care model, part 2.JAMA. 2002; 288: 1909-1914https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.288.15.1909
- Factors influencing safe glucose-lowering in older adults with type 2 diabetes: A PeRsOn-centred ApproaCh To IndiVidualisEd (PROACTIVE) glycemic goals for older people: a position statement of primary care diabetes Europe.Primary Care Diabetes. 2019; 13: 330-352https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcd.2018.12.005
Diabetes in Europe – Policy Puzzle, European Coalition for Diabetes, 2014. https://www.fend.org/sites/fend.org/files/ECD-PP4finalweb.pdf (accessed 06.08.19).
- IDF Diabetes Atlas.eighth edition. International Diabetes Federation, Brussels, Belgium2017
- Treatment approach to type 2 diabetes: Past, present and future.WJD. 2018; 9: 209-219https://doi.org/10.4239/wjd.v9.i12.209
- Therapeutic inertia and the legacy of dysglycemia on the microvascular and macrovascular complications of diabetes.Diabetes Care. 2019; 42: 349-351https://doi.org/10.2337/dci18-0030
- The changing face of diabetes complications.Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2016; 4: 537-547https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(16)30010-9
- Evidence tips the scale toward screening for hyperglycemia.Diabetes Care. 2015; 38: 1399-1401https://doi.org/10.2337/dc15-0856
- Prevalence of cardiovascular disease in type 2 diabetes: a systematic literature review of scientific evidence from across the world in 2007–2017.Cardiovasc. Diabetol. 2018; 17: 83https://doi.org/10.1186/s12933-018-0728-6
- Management of hyperglycemia in Type 2 diabetes, 2018. A consensus report by the American Diabetes Association (ADA) and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD).Diabetes Care. 2018; 41: 2669-2701https://doi.org/10.2337/dci18-0033
- Management of hyperglycaemia in type 2 diabetes, 2018. A consensus report by the American Diabetes Association (ADA) and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD).Diabetologia. 2018; 61: 2461-2498https://doi.org/10.1007/s00125-018-4729-5
- Generalist solutions to complex problems: generating practice-based evidence – the example of managing multi-morbidity.BMC Fam. Pract. 2013; 14: 112https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2296-14-112
- Barriers to effective management of type 2 diabetes in primary care: qualitative systematic review.Br. J. Gen. Pract. 2016; 66: e114-e127https://doi.org/10.3399/bjgp16X683509
- Implementation of a structured diabetes consultation model to facilitate a person-centered approach: results from a Nationwide Dutch Study.Diabetes Care. 2018; : dc171194https://doi.org/10.2337/dc17-1194
- Association between person and disease related factors and the planned diabetes care in people who receive person-centered type 2 diabetes care: an implementation study.PLOS ONE. 2019; 14: e0219702https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0219702
- Utilization of registered nurses in primary care teams: a systematic review.Int. J. Nurs. Stud. 2017; 74: 15-23https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2017.05.013
- Patients with poorly controlled diabetes in primary care: healthcare clinicians’ beliefs and attitudes.Postgrad. Med. J. 2006; 82: 347-350https://doi.org/10.1136/pgmj.2005.039545
- Integrated primary care: is this the solution to the diabetes epidemic?.Diabetes Med. 2017; 34: 748-750https://doi.org/10.1111/dme.13348
- Therapeutic inertia in type 2 diabetes: prevalence, causes, consequences and methods to overcome inertia.Therap. Adv. Endocrinol. 2019; 10https://doi.org/10.1177/2042018819844694
- Therapeutic inertia in the treatment of hyperglycaemia in patients with type 2 diabetes: a systematic review.Diabetes Obes. Metab. 2018; 20: 427-437https://doi.org/10.1111/dom.13088
- Clinical inertia in general practice: widespread and related to the outcome of diabetes care.Fam Pract. 2009; 26: 428-436https://doi.org/10.1093/fampra/cmp053
- Quality of care of people with type 2 diabetes in eight European countries: Findings from the Guideline Adherence to Enhance Care (GUIDANCE) study.Diabetes Care. 2013; 36: 2628-2638https://doi.org/10.2337/dc12-1759
- Type 2 diabetes mellitus unawareness, prevalence, trends and risk factors: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 1999–2010.J. Int. Med. Res. 2017; 45: 594-609https://doi.org/10.1177/0300060517693178
- Primary care management of patients with type 2 diabetes: overcoming inertia and advancing therapy with the use of injectables.Clin. Therap. 2019; 41: 352-367https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinthera.2018.11.015
- Achievement of guideline targets for blood pressure, lipid, and glycaemic control in type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis.Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 2018; 137: 137-148https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2017.12.004
- Refill adherence and polypharmacy among patients with type 2 diabetes in general practice.Pharmacoepidemiol. Drug Saf. 2009; 18: 983-991https://doi.org/10.1002/pds.1810
- Effect of early intensive multifactorial therapy on 5-year cardiovascular outcomes in individuals with type 2 diabetes detected by screening (ADDITION-Europe): a cluster-randomised trial.Lancet. 2011; 378: 156-167https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60698-3
- Long-term effects of intensive multifactorial therapy in individuals with screen-detected type 2 diabetes in primary care: 10-year follow-up of the ADDITION-Europe cluster-randomised trial.Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2019; 7: 925-937https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(19)30349-3
- Understanding the Primary Care Landscape in Europe.2019
- Diabetes research in primary care: fiction, reality or essential?.Diabetes Med. 2018; 35: 832-834https://doi.org/10.1111/dme.13638
- External validity of randomized controlled trials of glycaemic control and vascular disease: how representative are participants?.Diabetes Med. 2013; 30: 300-308https://doi.org/10.1111/dme.12047
- Sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitor: comparing trial data and real-world use.Diabetes Ther. 2017; 8: 365-376https://doi.org/10.1007/s13300-017-0254-7
- How representative of a general type 2 diabetes population are patients included in cardiovascular outcome trials with SGLT2 inhibitors? A large European observational study.Diabetes Obes. Metab. 2019; 21: 968-974https://doi.org/10.1111/dom.13612
- Eligibility varies among the 4 sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitor cardiovascular outcomes trials: implications for the general type 2 diabetes US population.Am. J. Manag. Care. 2018; 24: S138-S145
S.C. Bain, A. Bakhai, M. Evans, et al., Pharmacological treatment for Type 2 diabetes integrating findings from cardiovascular outcome trials: an expert consensus in the UK, Diabetic Medicine. (n.d.). https://doi.org/10.1111/dme.14058.
- 2019 ESC guidelines on diabetes, pre-diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases developed in collaboration with the EASD.Euro. Heart J. 2019; : ehz486https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehz486
- IDF Clinical Practice Recommendations for managing Type 2 Diabetes in Primary Care.2017 (https://www.idf.org/e-library/guidelines/128-idf-clinical-practice-recommendations-for-managing-type-2-diabetes-in-primary-care.html (accessed 14.08.19).)
- Use of consensus development to establish national research priorities in critical care.BMJ. 2000; 320: 976-980https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.320.7240.976
WHOCC – ATC/DDD Index, (n.d.). https://www.whocc.no/atc_ddd_index/ (accessed 17.10.19).
- Poor medication adherence in type 2 diabetes: recognizing the scope of the problem and its key contributors.PPA. 2016; 10: 1299-1307https://doi.org/10.2147/PPA.S1068.21
- Shared decision making in endocrinology: present and future directions.Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2016; 4: 706-716https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(15)0046.8-4
- 60 years of metformin use: a glance at the past and a look to the future.Diabetologia. 2017; 60: 1561-1565https://doi.org/10.1007/s00125-017-4343-y
- Effect of intensive blood-glucose control with metformin on complications in overweight patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 34).Lancet. 1998; 352: 854-865https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(98)07037-8
Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network (SIGN), pharmacological management of glycaemic control in people with type 2 diabetes, 2019. https://www.sign.ac.uk/assets/sign154.pdf (accessed 09.08.19).
- Impact of metformin on cardiovascular disease: a meta-analysis of randomised trials among people with type 2 diabetes.Diabetologia. 2017; 60: 1620-1629https://doi.org/10.1007/s00125-017-4337-9
- Association of organic cation transporter 1 with intolerance to metformin in type 2 diabetes: a GoDARTS study.Diabetes. 2015; 64: 1786-1793https://doi.org/10.2337/db14-1388
- Glycaemic durability of an early combination therapy with vildagliptin and metformin versus sequential metformin monotherapy in newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes (VERIFY): a 5-year, multicentre, randomised, double-blind trial.Lancet. 2019; https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(19)3213.1-2
- Initial combination therapy with metformin, pioglitazone and exenatide is more effective than sequential add-on therapy in subjects with new-onset diabetes. Results from the Efficacy and Durability of Initial Combination Therapy for Type 2 Diabetes (EDICT): a randomized trial.Diabetes Obes. Metab. 2015; 17: 268-275https://doi.org/10.1111/dom.12417
- 10-year follow-up of intensive glucose control in type 2 diabetes.N. Engl. J. Med. 2008; 359: 1577-1589https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0806470
- The legacy effect in type 2 diabetes: impact of early glycemic control on future complications (The Diabetes & Aging Study).Diabetes Care. 2019; 42: 416-426https://doi.org/10.2337/dc17-1144
- Intensive glucose control in patients with Type 2 diabetes — 15-year follow-up.N. Engl. J. Med. 2019; https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa.1806.802
- Improving glycaemic control in patients with Type 2 diabetes mellitus without insulin therapy.Diabetes Med. 2003; 20: 540-544https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1464-5491.2003.00980.x
- Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs).2017 (https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/cardiovascular-diseases-(cvds) (accessed 08.08.19))
- Legacy benefits of blood glucose, blood pressure and lipid control in individuals with diabetes and cardiovascular disease: time to overcome multifactorial therapeutic inertia?.Diabetes Obes. Metab. 2018; 20: 1337-1341https://doi.org/10.1111/dom.13243
- Secondary prevention of cardiovascular diseases and application of technology for early diagnosis.BioMed Res. Int. 2018; 2018: 1-9https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/5767864
- Use of risk assessment tools to guide decision-making in the primary prevention of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: a special report from the american heart association and American college of cardiology.J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2019; 73: 3153-3167https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2018.11.005
- 10. Cardiovascular disease and risk management: standards of medical care in diabetes—2019.Diabetes Care. 2019; 42: S103-S123https://doi.org/10.2337/dc19-S010
- Development of predictive risk models for major adverse cardiovascular events among patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus using health insurance claims data.Cardiovasc. Diabetol. 2018; 17: 118https://doi.org/10.1186/s12933-018-0759-z
- Major adverse cardiovascular events in people with chronic kidney disease in relation to disease severity and diabetes status.PLOS ONE. 2019; 14https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0221.044
C. Ke, B.R. Shah, A.O. Luk, et al., Cardiovascular outcomes trials in type 2 diabetes: Time to include young adults, Diabetes Obes, Metabol, (n.d.). https://doi.org/10.1111/dom.13874.
- Complications in young adults with early-onset type 2 diabetes: losing the relative protection of youth.Diabetes Care. 2003; 26: 2999-3005https://doi.org/10.2337/diacare.26.11.2999
- Glucose control and cardiovascular disease: is it important? No.Diabetes Care. 2009; 32: S334-S336https://doi.org/10.2337/dc09-S334
- Effects of intensive glucose lowering in type 2 diabetes.N. Engl. J. Med. 2008; 358: 2545-2559https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0802743
- Effect of intensive glucose lowering treatment on all cause mortality, cardiovascular death, and microvascular events in type 2 diabetes: meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials.BMJ. 2011; 343: d4169https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.d.4169
- Hypoglycemia and cardiovascular risk: is there a major link?.Diabetes Care. 2016; 39: S205-S209https://doi.org/10.2337/dcS15-3014
- Intensive glucose control and macrovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes.Diabetologia. 2009; 52: 2288-2298https://doi.org/10.1007/s00125-009-1470-0
- Effect of intensive control of glucose on cardiovascular outcomes and death in patients with diabetes mellitus: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials.Lancet. 2009; 373: 1765-1772https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(09)6069.7-8
- Blood pressure and stroke.Stroke. 2004; 35: 776-785https://doi.org/10.1161/01.STR. 0000116869.6477.1.5A
- Liraglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes.N. Engl. J. Med. 2016; 375: 311-322https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa.1603.827
- Semaglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes.N. Engl. J. Med. 2016; 375: 1834-1844https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa.1607141
- Oral semaglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes.N. Engl. J. Med. 2019; 381: 841-851https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa.1901.118
- Rapid tightening of blood glucose control leads to transient deterioration of retinopathy in insulin dependent diabetes mellitus: the Oslo study.Br. Med. J. (Clin. Res. Ed.). 1985; 290: 811-815https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.290.6471.811
- Albiglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease (Harmony Outcomes): a double-blind, randomised placebo-controlled trial.Lancet. 2018; 392: 1519-1529https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)3226.1-X
- Dulaglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes (REWIND): a double-blind, randomised placebo-controlled trial.Lancet. 2019; 394: 121-130https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(19)3114.9-3
- Lixisenatide in patients with type 2 diabetes and acute coronary syndrome.N. Engl. J. Med. 2015; 373: 2247-2257https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa.1509.225
- Effects of once-weekly exenatide on cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes.N. Engl. J. Med. 2017; 377: 1228-1239https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa.1612.917
- Cardiovascular outcomes with glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists in patients with type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis.Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2018; 6: 105-113https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(17)3041.2-6
- Empagliflozin, cardiovascular outcomes, and mortality in type 2 diabetes.N. Engl. J. Med. 2015; 373: 2117-2128https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa.1504.720
- Canagliflozin and cardiovascular and renal events in type 2 diabetes.N. Engl. J. Med. 2017; 377: 644-657https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa.1611.925
- Dapagliflozin and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes.N. Engl. J. Med. 2019; 380: 347-357https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa.1812.389
- SGLT2 inhibitors for primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular and renal outcomes in type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cardiovascular outcome trials.Lancet. 2019; 393: 31-39https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)3259.0-X
- Efficacy and safety of degludec versus glargine in type 2 diabetes.N. Engl. J. Med. 2017; 377: 723-732https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa.1615.692
- The treatment of type 2 diabetes in heart failure.Pract. Diabetes. 2018; 35: 123-126https://doi.org/10.1002/pdi.2178
- Diabetes mellitus is associated with adverse prognosis in chronic heart failure of ischaemic and non-ischaemic aetiology.Diabetes Vasc. Dis. Res. 2013; 10: 330-336https://doi.org/10.1177/1479164112471064
- Diabetes mellitus and heart failure.Am. J. Med. 2017; 130: S40-S50https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2017.04.010
- Prediction of heart failure in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus- a systematic review and meta-analysis.Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 2015; 108: 55-66https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2015.01.011
- Association between type 2 diabetes and all-cause hospitalization and mortality in the UK general heart failure population: stratification by diabetic glycemic control and medication intensification.J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. HF. 2017; 6: 18-26https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jchf.2017.08.020
- 20-year trends in cause-specific heart failure outcomes by sex, socioeconomic status, and place of diagnosis: a population-based study.Lancet Public Health. 2019; 4: e406-e420https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(19)3010.8-2
- Heart failure outcomes with empagliflozin in patients with type 2 diabetes at high cardiovascular risk: results of the EMPA-REG OUTCOME ® trial.Eur. Heart J. 2016; 37: 1526-1534https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehv728
- Canagliflozin and heart failure in type 2 diabetes mellitus: results from the CANVAS program.Circulation. 2018; 138: 458-468https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.118.0342.22
- Dapagliflozin in patients with heart failure and reduced ejection fraction.N. Engl. J. Med. 2019; https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa.1911303
- Lower risk of heart failure and death in patients initiated on sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors versus other glucose-lowering drugs.Circulation. 2017; 136: 249-259https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.117.0291.90
- Does lower limb amputation concern all SGLT2 inhibitors?.Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. 2018; 14: 326-328https://doi.org/10.1038/s41574-018-0001-9
- Efficacy and safety of sodium glucose co-transport-2 inhibitors in type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials: SGLT-2 inhibitors in type 2 diabetes.Diabetes Obes. Metab. 2014; 16: 457-466https://doi.org/10.1111/dom.1224.4
Janssen Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Invokana (canagliflozin) Prescribing Information, 2013, http://www.janssenlabels.com/package-insert/product-monograph/prescribing-information/INVOKANA-pi.pdf (accessed 16.08.19).
- Farxiga (dapagliflozin) Prescribing Information.2014 (https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2014/202293s000lbl.pdf (accessed 16.08.19).)
- Jardiance (empagliflozin) Prescribing Information.2018 (https://docs.boehringer-ingelheim.com/Prescribing%20Information/PIs/Jardiance/jardiance.pdf (accessed 16.08.19))
- Secondary prevention of macrovascular events in patients with type 2 diabetes in the PROactive Study (PROspective pioglitAzone Clinical Trial In macroVascular Events): a randomised controlled trial.Lancet. 2005; 366: 1279-1289https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(05)6752.8-9
- Pioglitazone and the secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease. A meta-analysis of randomized-controlled trials.Cardiovasc. Diabetol. 2017; 16: 134https://doi.org/10.1186/s12933-017-0617-4
- Effects on the incidence of cardiovascular events of the addition of pioglitazone versus sulfonylureas in patients with type 2 diabetes inadequately controlled with metformin (TOSCA.IT): a randomised multicentre trial.Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2017; 5: 887-897https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(17)3031.7-0
- Worsening heart failure during the use of DPP-4 inhibitors.JACC: Heart Fail. 2018; 6: 445-451https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jchf.2017.12.016
- Heart failure, saxagliptin, and diabetes mellitus: observations from the SAVOR-TIMI 53 randomized trial.Circulation. 2014; 130: 1579-1588https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.114.0103.89
- Heart failure and mortality outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes taking alogliptin versus placebo in EXAMINE: a multicentre, randomised, double-blind trial.Lancet. 2015; 385: 2067-2076https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(14)6222.5-X
- Effect of sitagliptin on cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes.N. Engl. J. Med. 2015; 373: 232-242https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa.1501.352
- Effect of Linagliptin vs Placebo on major cardiovascular events in adults with type 2 diabetes and high cardiovascular and renal risk: the CARMELINA randomized clinical trial.JAMA. 2019; 321: 69-79https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2018.1826.9
- The effect of insulin on renal handling of sodium, potassium, calcium, and phosphate in man.J. Clin. Invest. 1975; 55: 845-855https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI.1079.96
- Rosiglitazone clinical trials study group. A randomized trial of rosiglitazone therapy in patients with inadequately controlled insulin-treated type 2 diabetes.Diabetes Care. 2001; 24: 1226-1232https://doi.org/10.2337/diacare.24.7.1226
- Treatment with insulin is associated with worse outcome in patients with chronic heart failure and diabetes.Euro. J. Heart Fail. 2018; 20: 888-895https://doi.org/10.1002/ejhf.1146
- Diabetic kidney disease: challenges, progress, and possibilities.CJASN. 2017; 12: 2032-2045https://doi.org/10.2215/CJN.11491116
- The pathobiology of diabetic complications: a unifying mechanism.Diabetes. 2005; 54: 1615-1625https://doi.org/10.2337/diabetes.54.6.1615
- The treatment of type 2 diabetes in the presence of renal impairment: what we should know about newer therapies.Clin. Pharmacol. 2016; 8: 61-81https://doi.org/10.2147/CPAA.S.8200.8
- 11. Microvascular complications and foot care: standards of medical care in diabetes—2019.Diabetes Care. 2019; 42: S124-S138https://doi.org/10.2337/dc19-S011
- Metformin therapy in patients with chronic kidney disease.Diabetes Obes. Metabol. 2012; 14: 963-965https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1463-1326.2012.0161.7.x
- Intensive glucose control improves kidney outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes.Kidney Int. 2013; 83: 517-523https://doi.org/10.1038/ki.2012.401
- Long-term benefits of intensive glucose control for preventing end-stage kidney disease: ADVANCE-ON.Diabetes Care. 2016; 39: 694-700https://doi.org/10.2337/dc15-2322
- Diabetes treatment in patients with renal disease: is the landscape clear enough?.World J. Diabetes. 2014; 5: 651-658https://doi.org/10.4239/wjd.v5.i5.651
- The place of gliclazide MR in the evolving type 2 diabetes landscape: a comparison with other sulfonylureas and newer oral antihyperglycemic agents.Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 2018; 143: 1-14https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.201805.028
- Management of hyperglycemia in diabetic kidney disease.Diabetes Spectrum. 2015; 28: 214-219https://doi.org/10.2337/diaspect.28.3.214
- Review of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus in patients with chronic kidney disease and their renal effects.J. Diabetes. 2019; https://doi.org/10.1111/1753-0407.1296.9
- Targeting renal glucose reabsorption to treat hyperglycaemia: the pleiotropic effects of SGLT2 inhibition.Diabetologia. 2017; 60: 215-225https://doi.org/10.1007/s00125-016-4157-3
- Empagliflozin and progression of kidney disease in type 2 diabetes.N. Engl. J. Med. 2016; 375: 323-334https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa.1515920
- Canagliflozin and renal outcomes in type 2 diabetes and nephropathy.N. Engl. J. Med. 2019; 380: 2295-2306https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa.1811.744
- Effects of dapagliflozin on development and progression of kidney disease in patients with type 2 diabetes: an analysis from the DECLARE–TIMI 58 randomised trial.Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2019; 7: 606-617https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(19)3018.0-9
- Prevalence of and trends in diabetes among adults in the United States, 1988–2012.JAMA. 2015; 314: 1021-1029https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2015.10029
- Health effects of overweight and obesity in 195 countries over 25 years.N. Engl. J. Med. 2017; 377: 13-27https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1614362
- The metabolic syndrome.Endocr. Rev. 2008; 29: 777-822https://doi.org/10.1210/er.2008-0024
- What causes the insulin resistance underlying obesity?.Curr. Opin. Endocrinol. Diabetes Obes. 2012; 19: 81-87https://doi.org/10.1097/MED.0b013e.3283.514e13
- Novel subgroups of adult-onset diabetes and their association with outcomes: a data-driven cluster analysis of six variables.Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2018; 6: 361-369https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(18)3005.1-2
- Mortality from coronary heart disease in subjects with type 2 diabetes and in nondiabetic subjects with and without prior myocardial infarction.N. Engl. J. Med. 1998; 339: 229-234https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199807233390.404
- Primary prevention of cardiovascular disease in diabetes mellitus.J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2017; 70: 883-893https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2017.07.001
- Severe hypoglycemia and risks of vascular events and death.N. Engl. J. Med. 2010; 363: 1410-1418https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa.1003.795
- Glucose control and vascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes: is the picture clear?.Diabetes Care. 2016; 39: S187-S195https://doi.org/10.2337/dcS15-3023
- The effect of oral antidiabetic agents on A1C levels: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Diabetes Care. 2010; 33: 1859-1864https://doi.org/10.2337/dc09-1727
- Glycemic durability of rosiglitazone, metformin, or glyburide monotherapy.N. Engl. J. Med. 2006; 355: 2427-2443https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa.066224
- Long-term efficacy and safety comparison of liraglutide, glimepiride and placebo, all in combination with metformin in type 2 diabetes: 2-year results from the LEAD-2 study.Diabetes Obes. Metab. 2013; 15: 204-212https://doi.org/10.1111/dom.1201.2
- Empagliflozin compared with glimepiride in metformin-treated patients with type 2 diabetes: 208-week data from a masked randomized controlled trial.Diabetes Obes. Metab. 2018; 20: 2768-2777https://doi.org/10.1111/dom.1345.7
- The association between sulfonylurea use and all-cause and cardiovascular mortality: a meta-analysis with trial sequential analysis of randomized clinical trials.PLoS Med. 2016; 13https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001.992
- Effect of linagliptin vs glimepiride on major adverse cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes: the CAROLINA randomized clinical trial.JAMA. 2019; 322: 1155-1166https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2019.1377.2
- Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33).Lancet. 1998; 352: 837-853
- The infamous, famous sulfonylureas and cardiovascular safety: much ado about nothing?.Curr. Diabetes Rep. 2017; 17: 124https://doi.org/10.1007/s11892-017-0954-4
- Efficacy of gliclazide in comparison with other sulphonylureas in the treatment of NIDDM.Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 1991; 14: S65-S67https://doi.org/10.1016/0168-8227(91)9001.0-B
- Hypoglycaemia when adding sulphonylurea to metformin: a systematic review and network meta-analysis.Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 2016; 82: 1291-1302https://doi.org/10.1111/bcp.1305.9
- Intensive blood glucose control and vascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes.N. Engl. J. Med. 2008; 358: 2560-2572https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa.0802987
- Clinical evaluation of glimepiride versus glyburide in NIDDM in a double-blind comparative study. Glimepiride/Glyburide Research Group.Horm. Metab. Res. 1996; 28: 426-429https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2007-9798.31
- Availability and affordability of essential medicines for diabetes across high-income, middle-income, and low-income countries: a prospective epidemiological study.Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2018; 6: 798-808https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(18)3023.3-X
- Mortality risk among sulfonylureas: a systematic review and network meta-analysis.Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2015; 3: 43-51https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(14)7021.3-X
- A systematic review and meta-analysis of hypoglycemia and cardiovascular events: a comparison of glyburide with other secretagogues and with insulin.Diabetes Care. 2007; 30: 389-394https://doi.org/10.2337/dc06-1789
- The right place for Sulphonylureas today: part of review the series: implications of recent CVOTs in Type 2 diabetes mellitus.Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 2019; : 107836https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2019.1078.36
- The role of nateglinide and repaglinide, derivatives of meglitinide, in the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus.Arch. Med. Sci. 2013; 9: 936-943https://doi.org/10.5114/aoms.2013.3499.1
- Mortality and cardiovascular risk associated with different insulin secretagogues compared with metformin in type 2 diabetes, with or without a previous myocardial infarction: a nationwide study, Eur.Heart. J. 2011; 32: 1900-1908https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehr077
- Efficacy and safety of pioglitazone versus metformin in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a double-blind, randomized trial.J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2004; 89: 6068-6076https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2003-0308.61
- Long-term efficacy and tolerability of add-on pioglitazone therapy to failing monotherapy compared with addition of gliclazide or metformin in patients with type 2 diabetes.Diabetologia. 2005; 48: 1093-1104https://doi.org/10.1007/s00125-005-1751-1
- Thiazolidinediones and blood lipids in type 2 diabetes.Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 2003; 23: 1744-1749https://doi.org/10.1161/01.ATV. 0000090521.25968.4D
- Pioglitazone and risk of cardiovascular events in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a meta-analysis of randomized trials.JAMA. 2007; 298: 1180-1188https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.298.10.1180
- Comparison of pioglitazone vs glimepiride on progression of coronary atherosclerosis in patients with type 2 diabetes: the PERISCOPE randomized controlled trial.JAMA. 2008; 299: 1561-1573https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.299.13.1561
- Effect of pioglitazone compared with glimepiride on carotid intima-media thickness in type 2 diabetes: a randomized trial.JAMA. 2006; 296: 2572-2581https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.296.21.joc.6015.8
- Pioglitazone, vitamin e, or placebo for nonalcoholic steatohepatitis.N. Engl. J. Med. 2010; 362: 1675-1685https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa.0907.929
- Role of insulin resistance and diabetes in the pathogenesis and treatment of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease.Curr. Hepatol. Rep. 2014; 13: 159-170https://doi.org/10.1007/s11901-014-0229-3
- Thiazolidinedione use, fluid retention, and congestive heart failure: a consensus statement from the American Heart Association and American Diabetes Association.Diabetes Care. 2004; 27: 256-263https://doi.org/10.2337/diacare.27.1.256
- Effect of thiazolidinediones on body weight in patients with diabetes mellitus.Am. J. Med. 2003; 115: 42S-48Shttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2003.09.005
- Thiazolidinediones and fracture risk in patients with Type 2 diabetes.Diabetes Med. 2011; 28: 759-771https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-5491.2010.03187.x
- Risk of bladder cancer among diabetic patients treated with pioglitazone: interim report of a longitudinal cohort study.Diabetes Care. 2011; 34: 916-922https://doi.org/10.2337/dc10-1068
- Acarbose: safe and effective for lowering postprandial hyperglycaemia and improving cardiovascular outcomes.Open Heart. 2015; 2https://doi.org/10.1136/openhrt-2015-0003.27
- Comparison of the hypoglycemic effect of acarbose monotherapy in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus consuming an Eastern or Western diet: a systematic meta-analysis.Clin. Ther. 2013; 35: 880-899https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinthera.2013.03.020
- Acarbose treatment and the risk of cardiovascular disease and hypertension in patients with impaired glucose tolerance: The STOP-NIDDM trial.JAMA. 2003; 290: 486-494https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.290.4.486
- Effects of acarbose on cardiovascular and diabetes outcomes in patients with coronary heart disease and impaired glucose tolerance (ACE): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2017; 5: 877-886https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(17)3030.9-1
- Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors for patients with type 2 diabetes: results from a Cochrane systematic review and meta-analysis.Diabetes Care. 2005; 28: 154-163https://doi.org/10.2337/diacare.28.1.154
Novo Nordisk A/S, Victoza (liraglutide) Prescribing Information, 2019. https://www.novo-pi.com/victoza.pdf (accessed 16.08.19).
Novo Nordisk A/S, Ozempic (semaglutide) Prescribing Information, 2019. Available from: https://www.novo-pi.com/ozempic.pdf.
- Effects of liraglutide compared with placebo on events of acute gallbladder or biliary disease in patients with type 2 diabetes at high risk for cardiovascular events in the LEADER randomized trial.Diabetes Care. 2019; https://doi.org/10.2337/dc19-0415
- Can we exonerate GLP-1 receptor agonists from blame for adverse pancreatic events?.Ann. Transl. Med. 2018; 6: 186https://doi.org/10.21037/atm.2018.03.06
- Impact of GLP-1 receptor agonists on blood pressure, heart rate and hypertension among patients with type 2 diabetes: A systematic review and network meta-analysis.Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 2015; 110: 26-37https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2015.07.015
M. Mazidi, P. Rezaie, H.-K. Gao, A.P. Kengne, Effect of sodium-glucose cotransport-2 inhibitors on blood pressure in people with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 43 randomized control trials with 22 528 patients, J. Am. Heart Assoc. 6 (n.d.) e004007. https://doi.org/10.1161/JAHA.116.004007.
- Prevalence and incidence of hypoglycaemia in 532,542 people with type 2 diabetes on oral therapies and insulin: a systematic review and meta-analysis of population based studies.PLOS ONE. 2015; 10: e0126427https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0126.427
- Less nocturnal hypoglycemia and better post-dinner glucose control with bedtime insulin glargine compared with bedtime NPH insulin during insulin combination therapy in type 2 diabetes. HOE 901/3002 Study Group.Diabetes Care. 2000; 23: 1130-1136https://doi.org/10.2337/diacare.23.8.1130
- A 26-week, randomized, parallel, treat-to-target trial comparing insulin detemir with nph insulin as add-on therapy to oral glucose-lowering drugs in insulin-naïve people with type 2 diabetes.Diabetes Care. 2006; 29: 1269-1274https://doi.org/10.2337/dc05-1365
- Effect of insulin degludec vs insulin glargine U100 on hypoglycemia in patients with type 2 diabetes: the SWITCH 2 randomized clinical trial.JAMA. 2017; 318: 45-56https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2017.7117
- New insulin glargine 300 units/mL versus glargine 100 units/mL in people with type 2 diabetes using basal and mealtime insulin: glucose control and hypoglycemia in a 6-month randomized controlled trial (EDITION 1).Diabetes Care. 2014; 37: 2755-2762https://doi.org/10.2337/dc14-0991
- Efficacy and safety of LixiLan, a titratable fixed-ratio combination of insulin glargine plus lixisenatide in type 2 diabetes inadequately controlled on basal insulin and metformin: The LixiLan-L randomized trial.Diabetes Care. 2016; 39: 1972-1980https://doi.org/10.2337/dc16-1495
- Efficacy and safety of IDegLira versus basal-bolus insulin therapy in patients with type 2 diabetes uncontrolled on metformin and basal insulin; DUAL VII randomized clinical trial.Diabetes Care. 2018; : dc171114https://doi.org/10.2337/dc17-1114
- Metformin treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus in pregnancy: update on safety and efficacy.Therap. Adv. Drug Saf. 2018; 9: 287-295https://doi.org/10.1177/2042098618769831
- Abdominal obesity, insulin resistance, and cardiovascular risk in pre-diabetes and type 2 diabetes.Eur. Heart J. Suppl. 2006; 8: B20-B25https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/sul004
- Targeting weight loss interventions to reduce cardiovascular complications of type 2 diabetes: a machine learning-based post-hoc analysis of heterogeneous treatment effects in the Look AHEAD trial.Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2017; 5: 808-815https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(17)3017.6-6
- Heterogeneity of treatment effects from an intensive lifestyle weight loss intervention on cardiovascular events in patients with type 2 diabetes: data from the look AHEAD trial.Diabetes Care. 2019; 42: 1988-1994https://doi.org/10.2337/dc19-0776
- Effects of moderate and subsequent progressive weight loss on metabolic function and adipose tissue biology in humans with obesity.Cell Metab. 2016; 23: 591-601https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2016.02.005
- Weight management in type 2 diabetes: current and emerging approaches to treatment.Diabetes Care. 2015; 38: 1161-1172https://doi.org/10.2337/dc14-1630
- Epidemiology of diabetes and diabetes complications in the elderly: an emerging public health burden.Curr. Diab. Rep. 2013; 13https://doi.org/10.1007/s11892-013-0425-5
- Where frailty meets diabetes: frailty and diabetes.Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev. 2016; 32: 261-267https://doi.org/10.1002/dmrr.2743
- 12. Older adults: standards of medical care in diabetes—2019.Diabetes Care. 2019; 42: S139-S147https://doi.org/10.2337/dc19-S012
- Sarcopenia and diabetes: hyperglycemia is a risk factor for age-associated muscle mass and functional reduction.J. Diabetes Investig. 2015; 6: 623-624https://doi.org/10.1111/jdi.1236.5
- Obesity paradox does exist.Diabetes Care. 2013; 36: S276-S281https://doi.org/10.2337/dcS13-2023
- Postprandial blood glucose is associated with generalized pruritus in patients with type 2 diabetes.Eur. J. Dermatol. 2013; 23: 688-693https://doi.org/10.1684/ejd.2013.2100
- Urinary tract infections in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: review of prevalence, diagnosis, and management.Diabetes Metab. Syndr. Obes. 2015; 8: 129-136https://doi.org/10.2147/DMSO.S.5179.2
- Treatment of diabetes in older adults: an endocrine society clinical practice guideline.J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2019; 104: 1520-1574https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2019-0019.8
- European diabetes working party for older people 2011 clinical guidelines for type 2 diabetes mellitus. Executive Summary.Diabetes Metab. 2011; 37: S27-S38https://doi.org/10.1016/S1262-3636(11)70962-4
- A randomized controlled trial comparing efficacy and safety of insulin glargine 300 units/ml versus 100 units/ml in older people with type 2 diabetes: results from the SENIOR study.Diabetes Care. 2018; 41: 1672-1680https://doi.org/10.2337/dc18-0168
- Management of diabetes in older adults.Nutr. Metabol. Cardiovas. Dis. 2018; 28: 206-218https://doi.org/10.1016/j.numecd.2017.11.007
The European Definition of GP/FM | WONCA Europe, (n.d.). https://www.woncaeurope.org/gp-definitions (accessed 18.10.19).
- Glucophage Product Monograph.2018 (http://products.sanofi.ca/en/glucophage.pdf (accessed 16.08.19))
- Effectiveness of progressive dose-escalation of exenatide(exendin-4) in reducing dose-limiting side effects in subjects with type 2 diabetes.Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev. 2004; 20: 411-417https://doi.org/10.1002/dmrr.499
- Genital and urinary tract infections in diabetes: Impact of pharmacologically-induced glucosuria.Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 2014; 103: 373-381https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2013.12.052
- Sodium glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors and risk of genital mycotic and urinary tract infection: A population-based study of older women and men with diabetes.Diabetes Obes. Metabol. 2019; 21: 2394-2404https://doi.org/10.1111/dom.1382.0
- An update on sodium-glucose co-transporter-2 inhibitors for the treatment of diabetes mellitus.Curr. Opin. Endocrinol. Diabetes Obes. 2017; : 1https://doi.org/10.1097/MED.0000000000000311
- Assessing bladder cancer risk in type 2 diabetes clinical trials: the dapagliflozin drug development program as a ‘case study’.Diabetes Ther. 2015; 6: 357-375https://doi.org/10.1007/s13300-015-0128-9
jardiance-epar-product-information_en.pdf, (n.d.). https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/product-information/jardiance-epar-product-information_en.pdf (accessed 22.04.20).
Merck & Co., Inc, Januvia (sitagliptin) Prescribing Information, 2019. https://www.merck.com/product/usa/pi_circulars/j/januvia/januvia_pi.pdf (accessed 16.08.19).
- Onglyza (saxagliptin) Prescribing Information.2009 (https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2009/022350lbl.pdf (accessed 16.08.19))
- Tradjenta (linagiptin) Prescribing Information.2019 (https://docs.boehringer-ingelheim.com/Prescribing%20Information/PIs/Tradjenta/Tradjenta.pdf (accessed 06.08.19))
- State of the art paper Sulfonylureas and their use in clinical practice.AOMS. 2015; 4: 840-848https://doi.org/10.5114/aoms.2015.5330.4
- Pharmacokinetics of glibenclamide and its metabolites in diabetic patients with impaired renal function.Euro. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 1998; 53: 429-435https://doi.org/10.1007/s002280050403
- Pioglitazone: side effect and safety profile.Expert Opin. Drug Safety. 2010; 9: 347-354https://doi.org/10.1517/1474033100362321.8
- Antihyperglycemic medications and cardiovascular risk reduction.Eur. Endocrinol. 2017; 13: 86-90https://doi.org/10.17925/EE.201713.02.86
- Cardiovascular outcomes trials in type 2 diabetes: where do we go from here? Reflections from a diabetes care editors’ expert forum.Diabetes Care. 2018; 41: 14-31https://doi.org/10.2337/dci17-0057
- Alogliptin after acute coronary syndrome in patients with type 2 diabetes.N. Engl. J. Med. 2013; 369: 1327-1335https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa.1305.889
- Saxagliptin and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus.N. Engl. J. Med. 2013; 369: 1317-1326https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa.1307.684
- Cardiovascular safety and renal microvascular outcome with linagliptin in patients with T2D at high vascular risk.2019 (https://adahighlights2019.com/articles/carolina-trial/read (accessed 04.09.19))